A major difference between the two concerns how strategic people can be. Relative power is the difference between your dependencies as compared to the other, and the others dependencies on you. Each one of these families utilized various aspects of generalized exchange in what they perceived as their social mobility prospects. Their generalized others will have fewer long-term relationships and rely on a constant influx of new exchangers. One might say that this looks a bit like Robert Mertons theory of deviance (1938); however, the big difference is that Merton focused on blockages that exist but said little about the motivation and process by which they are accepted or overcome, and nothing about the emotions that they generate. In row 4 (items 10, 11 and 12), people with low rank view their social position due to their lack of ability, and they engage in accepting the other imposed upon them by higher ranking people. Search in book: Search Contents. For instance, if the exchange takes place repeatedly over time, norms evolve about the relationship. The daughter complains to her grandmother, who has been an underpaid domestic for many decades to a prominent old and respected family. The way inequalities contribute to social differences and perpetuate differences in power: Symbolic Interactionism : Micro: One-to-one interactions and communications: . However, there are some people who are always in the restricted exchange mode (e.g., what have you done for me lately?). Social exchange is more generalized exchange as one might pursue in ones family or friend network. Thus, the social mobility process is not just a reaction to blockages, but it is a creative process of external valuation through generalized others, and internal identification through self-processes. Among her kin, she aims to keep the family together for over 50 years with parties with over 60 people. Following Goffman and bridging Mead and Athens, there seem to be two modes of behavior: (1) a general form of sociation where people generally intend to get along with each other as friends and associates, and (2) a strategic form of interaction that looks more like bargaining behavior where one has a sense of seeking specific monetary or other gains. In table 5.1, I present eleven different exchange relationships divided between restricted and generalized exchange, but I will only go over the main points. Michael Schwalbe and five others present a theory of critical interactionism on how inequalities are created in society, and these can also be related to social mobility. [2] Second, there are individual to group exchanges whereby a group might give a loan to an individual, and then the group expects payment by a particular date. The merit-based high-status persons and the low-skilled degraded low-status persons will most likely stay where they are in the social structureone feeling superior and the other deferential. They then become one of the largest legal firms in a 10 state area. And the Kennedy example, which of course is well known, shows how promotion can even lead to the Presidency of the United States. Exclusive group negotiations may be harder to maintain than overlapping negotiations. Medical doctors rising above homeopaths with the Flexner Report are a good example, but the process also applies to nurses seeking bachelors degrees to promote the status of RNs (Larson 1977; Abbott 1988). Generalized exchange looks to the betterment of the group as a whole, while restricted exchange is about the individual gaining for themselves. They are not as subordinated as those with degraded status, and they may achieve some limited mobility. Addressing systemic inequalities within the . Symbolic interactionism provides a major contribution to understanding inequality by illuminating the various manifestations and contexts of inequality at the micro, everyday level of social life. Expand 54 Emotion and Social Life: A Symbolic Interactionist Analysis S. Shott Sociology American Journal of Sociology 1979 First, in chain exchange (item 7) one person gives to another who then gives to a third party, and this continues to include more and more people as in pay it forward. Second, there are individual to closed group and open group exchanges (items 8 and 9). For example, consider the following: In Chapel Hill in the early 2000s, an African-American nurse promises to buy her daughter a dress for the prom, but her choice at a reasonable price at the department store is deemed mundane by her daughter. These people are very self-confident and quite connected. Generalized exchange was promoted by Malinowskis Kula Exchange in The Argonauts of the Western Pacific, and by studies of gift exchange with specified shells as the gift. There are two types of exchange that can be applied to symbolic interactionism. Social networks of kin and association in social mobility settings can occur in different formats according to bonding and bridging capital. The other form of strategic exchange is much narrower in scope and as a result it is called restricted exchange. Further examples can be seen in the development of trade unions. Afterwards, he says that no payment is necessary, but: Someday, and that day may never come, I will call upon you to do a service for me. But on the other hand, the one large factory owner who does not give to the community was ostracized from society and politics. First, in chain exchange (item 7) one person gives to another who then gives to a third party, and this continues to include more and more people as in pay it forward. Second, there are individual to closed group and open group exchanges (items 8 and 9). The purposes of these oppressions are boundary maintenance processes to indicate that the oppressors belong to a superior group and the subordinates belong to a less worthy group. In table 5.1, I present eleven different exchange relationships divided between restricted and generalized exchange, but I will only go over the main points. Oppressive othering penetrates the generalized other of Mead and indicates that people may promote or justify their positions in society by providing looking glass-self messages to others that they are inferior, inept, unworthy or otherwise inferior to themselves. They then become one of the largest legal firms in a 10 state area. Gender Inequality, Functionalism and Symbolic Interactionism. Differentiating these relationships gives meaning to positive and negative types of generalized others in the social mobility process. These may be negotiated by a leader but the followers know the terms of the agreement and are quick to point out any violations. Consequently, it is also important to focus on the higher status persons who are subject to downward mobility because they will also be highly defensive, resistant and even violent. A symbolic interactionist who does directly confront symbolic interactionism on questions of power is Lonnie Athens (1992, 1997). This section interrogates the concept of power and its weak presence in symbolic interactionist theory, and then goes into the theorys conceptions of inequality. Constructivism and Symbolic Interactionism. This type of exchange is favored by rational choice proponents and economists who see it as the paramount exchange that exists in markets. In row 5 (items 13, 14, and 15) people may be of low rank because of accidents or bad luck. Schwalbe et al. This involves two aspects of networking. Power in Symbolic Interactionism via Social Exchange Theory. George Herbert Mead does not say much about power in his social psychological theory, and when encountering the topic, the authoritative symbolic interactionist text by Sandstrom, Lively, Martin and Fine (2014: 177-184) after a very brief review of the concept largely embraces the social exchange theory of Richard Emerson (1962) that sees power as dependency. And you know that the funeral director will not only do it to repay his debt, but if he does not, the Don will most certainly take a pound of flesh. They see four factors as being important in the creation of inequality: oppressive othering, boundary maintenance, emotion management, and subordinate adaptations (Schwalbe et al. This does not mean that all social mobility in families is tied to generalized exchange. The same would apply to group exchange. (2000) provide a more nuanced view of oppressive othering by viewing different attributions with external and internal reactions from generalized others. This type of exchange is favored by rational choice proponents and economists who see it as the paramount exchange that exists in markets. Gender inequality is almost always prominent towards a female rather than towards a male. In a formula this might be: Your Power = 1 / Others dependencies on you, The others power = 1 / Your dependencies on the other, Relative power in = (Your power) (Others power). When people engage in sociation often with generalized exchange they are interacting according to the process of sociation. But when people engage in strategic interaction they are following interaction through power, which may be conscious by tough negotiators or may have been socialized into them through violentization. And further, there are processes in between. For symbolic interactionists, race and ethnicity provide strong symbols as sources of identity. But it is the high ranking but protected people and the low-ranking discriminated people who are the most likely to engage in social mobility conflicts. Although the favored Joe Jr. died in World War II, Joseph Kennedys sons John F., Robert and Ted Kennedy had peak political careers. This view of othering interacts with social mobility. Those families who engage in bridging capital to go outside their kinship groups are even more successful in bringing their families more advancement in social mobility. This is presented in table 5.2 along with material from Jonathan Turner and Jan Stets (2004). First, Helen Hilton marries a musician who then becomes a factory worker. Inequality and Social Mobility in Symbolic Interactionism. However, when groups are involved in strategic action then these calculations, in as much as they can be made, become quite important. More market exchange, often among strangers, is restricted exchange where one expects immediate payback. Political sociology can use these exchange processes to show how various political interactions can be negotiated. In table 5.1, I present eleven different exchange relationships divided between restricted and generalized exchange, but I will only go over the main points. Symbolic interactionism is a micro-level theory that focuses on meanings attached to human interaction, both verbal and non-verbal, and to symbols. Symbolic interactionism is a micro-level theory that focuses on the relationships among individuals within a society. The end result is a more nuanced and extended theory of power in society with elements of motivation at the individual and group level. A symbolic interactionist who does directly confront symbolic interactionism on questions of power is Lonnie Athens (1992, 1997). Symbolic interactionism is a sociological theory that develops from practical considerations and alludes to particular effects of communication and interaction in people to make images and normal implications, for deduction and correspondence with others. Afterwards, he says that no payment is necessary, but: Someday, and that day may never come, I will call upon you to do a service for me. Helen Hilton engaged in the least bridging capital to higher social classes. This generalized exchange does not demand immediate payback and helping one may lead to them helping another so that the initiator of the exchange does not expect immediate payback. They are not as subordinated as those with degraded status, and they may achieve some limited mobility. The same would apply to group exchange. They have deference and may have shame, but they seek to avoid these emotions by building negative subcultures where they are accepted with their deficiencies. Consequently, it is also important to focus on the higher status persons who are subject to downward mobility because they will also be highly defensive, resistant and even violent. [3] Also, similar processes can develop with a tight knit group of friends from high school or college. Joseph married Rose Fitzgerald, the daughter of the then Irish Mayor of Boston. Second, Beverly Johnson comes from an ethnic and lower-middle-class family and marries a man whose family has a prominent background. In row 4 (items 10, 11 and 12), people with low rank view their social position due to their lack of ability, and they engage in accepting the other imposed upon them by higher ranking people. Trust may develop. Not all interaction is bargaining, and if someone in our personal lives is constantly keeping score and pursuing the maximum goods and services in our relationships, we most often regard this person as a taker who is too instrumentally interested in outcomes in a friendship relationship. The grandmother mentions the specific dress that the young girl wants at the most expensive boutique in town, and the scion she works for says, I know the owner of the store; I can talk to her. The grandmother then tells her granddaughter that the dress has been marked down by 70% of the original price so that it is the same price as the department store dress. And downward mobility is much more painful than lack of mobility. In row 6 (items 16, 17 and 18) lower status persons with perhaps certain abilities and talents that they themselves recognize view their low status as being due to discrimination and bias coming from higher status persons. Inequality and Social Mobility in Symbolic Interactionism. Group to group generalized exchange can occur also through mutually exclusive groups (item 10) or overlapping groups (item 11). It argues that reality is simply what people make it to be through their interpretation of interactions.. Constructivists believe that people have created social constructs based on their relationship to others, and the social constructs that have lasted over time are now the symbols . The merit-based elites may protect the less able elites, and the discriminated subordinates with abilities may encourage the deferential people with hope. These are examples of generalized exchange through acquaintances rather than family. 2000; Sandstrom et al. As we have seen with the Trump-base, many of these people state I want my country back and Make America Great again. While one might self-righteously declare them as unjustified, they do not agree, and they are a political force to be reckoned with. The symbolic interaction theory basically addresses two issues. In their fearful position, they intensify their oppressive othering through discrimination with high intensity and emotion. A symbolic interactionist who does directly confront symbolic interactionism on questions of power is Lonnie Athens (1992, 1997). However, a weak norm of generalized reciprocity (i.e., restricted exchange) will create weaker social bonds. She informally entertains family and friends in a manner that reflects her idea of prevailing respectable social norms of her communitynothing more and nothing less. They engage in counter-othering which is the angry rejection of the imposed reflected appraisals of high-status people that intend to demean and reject them. There are some strong inclinations toward bargaining theory in symbolic interactionist theory. He questions George Herbert Meads predication of symbolic interaction as being based on sociation, which is the general consensual pursuit of cooperate social relations. Gender Inequality, Functionalism and Symbolic Interactionism Decent Essays 868 Words 4 Pages Open Document Gender inequality refers to the inequality between men and women, or the unequal treatment or perception of a person based on his or her gender. Differentiating these relationships gives meaning to positive and negative types of generalized others in the social mobility process. Her idea for social mobility is to work herself at the telephone company and maintain kinship and neighborly social relations. All too often, the processes of the generalized other are portrayed as supportive othering such as mothers and fathers interacting with their children in the socialization process. These can be seen in birthday parties in a family (group to individual that is closed by family members) or birthday parties at work where the exact people in the group may be constantly changing as employees come and go. Sociologists working from this perspective would be interested in understanding how the COVID-19 pandemic has affected the way people interact with each . Group to group generalized exchange can occur also through mutually exclusive groups (item 10) or overlapping groups (item 11). And lastly, Joseph P. Kennedy was the son of a successful Irish businessman. For example, consider the following: In Chapel Hill in the early 2000s, an African-American nurse promises to buy her daughter a dress for the prom, but her choice at a reasonable price at the department store is deemed mundane by her daughter. Helen Hilton engaged in the least bridging capital to higher social classes. However, in this book, I find that they can be profitably put together or synthesized. The couples' income was relatively low, with 75 percent earning less than $14,000 a year. They have deference and may have shame, but they seek to avoid these emotions by building negative subcultures where they are accepted with their deficiencies. Social exchange is more generalized exchange as one might pursue in ones family or friend network. Here are four examples with disguised names except for the last one. After describing the couples, the author develops a symbolic interactionist model to explain how the respondents made sense of their violence. The firm of Wilson and Wilson become quite successful, and eventually the younger brothers and two children who become lawyers then expand the business to six other states. The end result is a more nuanced and extended theory of power in society with elements of motivation at the individual and group level. The two types are when the groups overlap or they do not. The other form of strategic exchange is much narrower in scope and as a result it is called restricted exchange. In the end, I conclude that both Athens and Mead are right but both are also incomplete. In a formula this might be: Your Power = 1 / Others dependencies on you, The others power = 1 / Your dependencies on the other, Relative power in = (Your power) (Others power). The mother reluctantly buys the dress for the ecstatic daughter, but angrily tells her mother (the daughters grandmother) that the scion has underpaid you for years, and that this is exactly what keeps us in our place.. The exchange is usually short (money paid for material objects, knowledge or personal services) and both parties are self-interested. The first type is restricted exchange that is best characterized by market exchange whereby one gives money for some goods or services. George Herbert Mead does not say much about power in his social psychological theory, and when encountering the topic, the authoritative symbolic interactionist text by Sandstrom, Lively, Martin and Fine (2014: 177-184) after a very brief review of the concept largely embraces the social exchange theory of Richard Emerson (1962) that sees power as dependency. Power and Inequality in Symbolic Interaction, Quantitative Initiative for Policy and Social Research (QIPSR), Social Psychology of Citizens and Subjects: Generalized Others and the Pathways to Inequality and Social Structure, Symbolic Interactionist Theory Revised for Political Sociology, Interactional Ritual Chains and Differential Association, From Generalized Others to Social Networks and Groups to Social Structure and Culture. Schwalbe et al. They actively construct a generalized other that recognizes their abilities and rejects oppressive othering, and they often will create positive sub-cultures among other low status but talented people that reflect their own more positive views (through ressentiment which was discussed earlier). Most often, more distant others are in restricted exchange relationships. Symbolic interaction has a particular weakness concerning a concept critical to political sociology and that is the concept of power. We will refer to those who operate with more restricted exchange as opportunists in the next chapter on citizen selves. Not all interaction is bargaining, and if someone in our personal lives is constantly keeping score and pursuing the maximum goods and services in our relationships, we most often regard this person as a taker who is too instrumentally interested in outcomes in a friendship relationship. This inequality, is having an impact on the family and it is mostly negative. Power in Symbolic Interactionism via Social Exchange Theory. Their chances of positive mobility are greater. These can be seen in birthday parties in a family (group to individual that is closed by family members) or birthday parties at work where the exact people in the group may be constantly changing as employees come and go. Therefore structural sources of redefinition are ignored." (Term paper on Symbolic Interaction Theory, 2008). Among her kin, she aims to keep the family together for over 50 years with parties with over 60 people. Following Goffman and bridging Mead and Athens, there seem to be two modes of behavior: (1) a general form of sociation where people generally intend to get along with each other as friends and associates, and (2) a strategic form of interaction that looks more like bargaining behavior where one has a sense of seeking specific monetary or other gains. The merit-based high-status persons and the low-skilled degraded low-status persons will most likely stay where they are in the social structureone feeling superior and the other deferential. Theories of Exchange in Social Psychology. Social Exchange in Symbolic Interaction with Bonding and Bridging Capital. It is a further question of whether these negotiations or social bargains are involved with restricted or generalized exchange. But it is the high ranking but protected people and the low-ranking discriminated people who are the most likely to engage in social mobility conflicts. In row 1 (items 1, 2 and 3) high status persons who feel that their status is based on ability engage in self-justified othering where they are validated, and they develop powerful virtual selves. Schwalbe et al.s (2000) view of blockages goes beyond Merton to state that higher elites impose oppressive othering on low status people through emotion, discrimination, and self-processes of internalization or counter-othering. Exclusive group negotiations may be harder to maintain than overlapping negotiations. This means that for those who go upward on the social scale, some will go downward. This type of exchange is favored by rational choice proponents and economists who see it as the paramount exchange that exists in markets. Thus, the social mobility process is not just a reaction to blockages, but it is a creative process of external valuation through generalized others, and internal identification through self-processes. Michael Schwalbe and five others present a theory of critical interactionism on how inequalities are created in society, and these can also be related to social mobility. However, Strauss does not go far with this conception of bargaining as it might appear in political action. Collins theory is based on people being unequal in their resources, which links to power resources theory but he is a bit vague about the connection. However, if a family member ignores his brothers and sisters, he will need to make up for bonding capital with an extensive focus on bridging capital to a higher social class. This involves two aspects of networking. Generalized exchange is more community and group interested rather than self-interested. [3] In the professions literature, a particular profession often engages in a professional project to raise the status of the group as a whole. This does not mean that all social mobility in families is tied to generalized exchange. While the women largely stay at home, the male members of this kin group help each other to gain high paying jobs within the same industry as her husband with one becoming quite wealthy. The second type of exchange is generalized exchange. While it might seem like a big name, symbolic interactionism is how your experiences add subjective meanings to symbols and letters. And you know that the funeral director will not only do it to repay his debt, but if he does not, the Don will most certainly take a pound of flesh. Schwalbe et al.s (2000) view of blockages goes beyond Merton to state that higher elites impose oppressive othering on low status people through emotion, discrimination, and self-processes of internalization or counter-othering. However, when groups are involved in strategic action then these calculations, in as much as they can be made, become quite important. Joseph married Rose Fitzgerald, the daughter of the then Irish Mayor of Boston. In row 2 (items 4, 5 and 6) high ranking people have largely inherited their rank by ascriptive principles and they rely on their traditional positions but may need to engage in defensive othering and internalization, In row 3 (items 7, 8 and 9), some people have high rank due to bias and discrimination and they are quite insecure and very much subject to downward mobility. For instance, if the exchange takes place repeatedly over time, norms evolve about the relationship. It is a further question of whether these negotiations or social bargains are involved with restricted or generalized exchange. It integrates a bargaining theory of power into symbolic interactionism, and alters the symbolic interactionist discussion of power by putting it into a context of social exchange and types of social mobility. Here are four examples with disguised names except for the last one. [3] Also, similar processes can develop with a tight knit group of friends from high school or college. George Herbert Mead does not say much about power in his social psychological theory, and when encountering the topic, the authoritative symbolic interactionist text by Sandstrom, Lively, Martin and Fine (2014: 177-184) after a very brief review of the concept largely embraces the social exchange theory of Richard Emerson (1962) that sees power as dependency. Ones and the others alternatives are measured by the number of alternatives times their value, which is the value of the alternative times its probability. The mother reluctantly buys the dress for the ecstatic daughter, but angrily tells her mother (the daughters grandmother) that the scion has underpaid you for years, and that this is exactly what keeps us in our place.. These people are very self-confident and quite connected. 2000; Sandstrom et al. Third, the eldest son of a middle-class family, George Wilson, becomes a personal injury lawyer and is quite successful. The first type is restricted exchange that is best characterized by market exchange whereby one gives money for some goods or services. There are two types of exchange that can be applied to symbolic interactionism. There are also many examples of people gaining great wealth or political influence through more restricted exchange. Symbolic interaction theory analyzes society by addressing the subjective meanings that people impose on objects, events, and behaviors. Those families who engage in bridging capital to go outside their kinship groups are even more successful in bringing their families more advancement in social mobility. Symbolic Interactionism. For example, an individual receiving unemployment insurance promises to be ready and able to work, and to search for work and fail in order to receive the benefit. Generalized exchange is more community and group interested rather than self-interested. Closer relationships like kin and close friends are more often in a generalized exchange relationship with a high degree of bonding in long-term relationships. More recently, Monica Whitman (2021) has shown that a strong norm of reciprocity will have powerful effects leading to social trust and generalized exchange for the betterment of the group. He questions George Herbert Mead's predication of symbolic interaction as being based on "sociation," which is the general consensual pursuit of cooperate social relations.
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symbolic interactionism and inequality